Marx And Weber Essays - Marxian Economics, Social Philosophy

Marx And Weber Both Carl Marx and Max Weber wrote extensively on capitalism, its origins, and its future. Although, they agreed on a few very small points, for the main part, they strongly disagreed. Only through the analysis of their main differences in the two ideologies can a stronger and broader understanding of capitalism be reached. Marx believed strongly in what he called dialectical materialism, that is, that everything is material and that change takes place through the struggle between classes. He believed that men make their own history and transform their natural habitat to fit their changing needs. ?Men begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence. . . In producing their means of subsistence men indirectly produce their actually material life.? Throughout history men transform nature to make it better serve their own purposes. According to Marx, all societies go through five stages of history and capitalism is simply a necessary stage between feudalism and the final step of communism. The way in which men create their social organization is based on modes of production. Changes within these societies occur because as the mode of production changes, it no longer fits the present social organization (p. 157). Therefore, a new class and hence a new form of society emerges. During Feudalism merchants were inferior. Nevertheless, as cities grew the number of merchants grew as well. With their increase in number came an increase in economic power. When the state was unwilling to change to their needs, they formed a revolution resulting in capitalism. Weber has a different perspective on why and how capitalism came about. Rather than just focusing on how capitalism came about, he focuses on finding an answer to the question of why capitalism happened where and when it did. When he looked for differences in the capitalist cultures and non-capitalist cultures at the time he found that capitalism occurred at the same time as the Protestant reformation. The obvious next question for Weber was why was it the Protestant culture that led to capitalism. He found a large explanation within the difference between Protestants and Catholics. For Catholics, priests had the power to forgive you of your sins. Therefore, all that was necessary for you to do to get absolution was to confess your sins. For Protestants this was much more difficult. Because Protestant priests were only teachers, they did not have the luxury of simply confessing their sins. Protestants also believed that their souls were predestined to go to either heaven or hell. Nonetheless, Protestants felt that they could determine the status of their souls through their calling. As Weber describes on page 80, ?The only way of living acceptably to God was. . . solely though the fulfillment of the obligations imposed on the individual by his position in the world. This was his calling.? As Protestants worked in their callings, their God given field of study in which to work, the amount of success that they achieved was a sign from God as to the predestination of their souls (p. 162). For this reason, Protestants developed a wonderful work ethic. However, they were not allowed to spend the money that they earned. Instead they saved and invested it. Weber found this to be strong evidence that, ?One's duty in a calling is what is most characteristic of the social ethic of capitalistic culture, and is in a sense the fundamental basis of it? (p. 54). Weber also found that this work ethic was strong throughout all economic classes no matter what their individual callings were (p. 40). He found the division of labor that came naturally through capitalism to be a good thing. It did not lead to the separating of society into two very different and conflicting classes. Instead, it formed a number of different classes that were related to each man's life style and calling. Each man's God given calling was different from that of his fellow man because God intended it to be so. The division of labor led to the specialization of occupations and increased development of skills, which in turn caused an improvement in production. The division of labor therefore serves the common good (p. 161). Marx

How Sociologists Define Human Agency

How Sociologists Define Human Agency Agency refers to the thoughts  and actions taken by people that express their individual power. The core challenge at the center of the field of sociology is understanding the relationship  between structure and agency. Structure refers to the complex and interconnected set of social forces, relationships, institutions, and elements of social structure that work together to shape the thought, behavior, experiences, choices, and overall life  courses of people. In contrast, agency is the power people have to think for themselves and act in ways that  shape their experiences and life trajectories. Agency can take individual and collective forms. Relationship Between Social Structure and Agency Sociologists understand the relationship between social structure and agency to be an ever-evolving dialectic. In the simplest sense, a dialectic refers to a relationship between two things, each of which has the ability to influence the other, such that a change in one requires a change in the other. To consider the relationship between structure and agency a dialectical one is to assert that while social structure shapes individuals, individuals (and groups) also shape social structure. After all, society is a social creation the creation and maintenance of social order require the cooperation of individuals connected through social relationships. So, while the lives of individuals are shaped by the existing social structure, they none the less have the ability   the  agency   to make decisions and express them in behavior. Reaffirm Social Order or Remake It Individual and collective agency may serve to reaffirm social order by reproducing norms and existing social relationships, or it may serve to challenge and remake social order by going against the status quo to create new norms and relationships. Individually, this might look like rejecting the gendered norms of dress. Collectively, the ongoing civil rights battle to expand the definition of marriage to same-sex couples shows agency expressed through political and legal channels. The Link to Disenfranchised Populations The debate about the relationship between structure and agency often comes up when sociologists study the lives of disenfranchised and oppressed populations. Many people, social scientists included, often slip into the trap of describing such populations as if they have no agency. Because we recognize the power of  social structural elements  like economic class stratification, systemic racism, and patriarchy, to determine life chances and outcomes, we might think that the poor, people of color, and women and girls are universally oppressed by social structure, and thus, have no agency.  When we look at macro trends and longitudinal data, the big picture is read by many as suggesting as much. Agency Is Alive and Well However, when we look sociologically at the everyday lives of people among disenfranchised and oppressed populations, we see that agency is alive and well, and that it takes  many forms. For example, many perceive the life  course of black and Latino boys, especially those who are born into lower socioeconomic classes, as largely predetermined by a raced and classed social structure that corrals poor folks into neighborhoods devoid of employment and resources, pours them into underfunded and understaffed schools, tracks them into remedial classes, and disproportionately polices and punishes them. Yet, despite a social structure that produces such troubling phenomena, sociologists have found that black and Latino boys,  and other disenfranchised and oppressed groups,  exert agency in this social context in a variety of ways. It Takes Many Forms Agency might take the form of demanding respect from teachers and administrators, doing well in school, or even disrespecting teachers, cutting classes, and dropping out. While the latter instances might seem like individual failings, in the context of oppressive social environments, resisting and rejecting authority figures that steward oppressive institutions have been documented as an important form of self-preservation, and thus, as agency. Simultaneously, agency in this context may also take the form of staying in school and working to excel, despite the social structural forces that work to impede such success.

The Collapse of Gupta India

The Collapse of Gupta India The Gupta Empire may have lasted only about 230 years, but it was characterized by a sophisticated culture with innovative advances in literature, arts, and sciences. Its influence continues to be felt in art, dance, mathematics, and many other fields today, not just in India but across Asia and around the world. Called Indias Golden Age by most scholars, the Gupta Empire was likely founded by a member of a lower Hindu caste called Sri Gupta. He came from the Vaishya or farmer caste and founded the new dynasty in reaction to abuses by previous princely rulers. The Gupta were ardent Vaishnavas, devotees of Vishnu and they ruled as traditional Hindu monarchs. Advances of the Golden Age of Classical India During this Golden Age, India was part of an international trade network which also included other great classical empires of the day, the Han Dynasty in China to the east and the Roman Empire to the west. The famed Chinese pilgrim to India, Fa Hsien (Faxien) noted that Gupta law was exceptionally generous; crimes were punished only with fines. The rulers sponsored advances in science, painting, textiles, architecture, and literature. Gupta artists created marvelous sculptures and paintings, perhaps including the Ajanta caves. The surviving architecture includes palaces and purpose-built temples for both Hindu and Buddhist religions, such as the Parvati Temple at Nachana Kuthara and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh in Madhya Pradesh. New forms of music and dance, some of which are still performed today, flourished under Gupta patronage. The emperors also founded free hospitals for their citizens, as well as monasteries and universities. The classical Sanskrit language reached its apogee during this period as well, with poets such as Kalidasa and Dandi. The ancient texts of the Mahabharata and Ramayana were converted into sacred texts and the Vau and Matsya Puranas were composed. Scientific and mathematical advances include the invention of the number zero, Aryabhatas astonishingly accurate calculation of pi as 3.1416, and his equally amazing calculation that the solar year is 365.358 days long. Establishing the Gupta Dynasty In about 320 CE, the chief of a small kingdom called Magadha in southeastern India set out to conquer the neighboring kingdoms of Prayaga and Saketa. He used a combination of military might and marriage alliances to expand his kingdom into an empire. His name was Chandragupta I and through his conquests he formed the Gupta Empire. Many scholars believe that Chandraguptas family was from the Vaishya caste, which was the third tier out of four in the traditional Hindu caste system. If so, this was a major departure from Hindu tradition, in which the Brahmin priestly caste and the Kshatriya warrior/princely class generally held religious and secular power over the lower castes. In any case, Chandragupta rose from relative obscurity to reunite much of the Indian subcontinent, which had fragmented five centuries earlier after the fall of the Mauryan Empire in 185 BCE. Rulers of the Gupta Dynasty Chandraguptas son, Samudragupta (ruled 335–380 CE), was a brilliant warrior and statesman, sometimes called the Napoleon of India. Samudragupta, however, never faced a Waterloo, and was able to pass on a greatly expanded Gupta Empire to his sons. He extended the empire to the Deccan Plateau in the south, Punjab in the north, and Assam in the east. Samudragupta also was a talented poet and musician. His successor was Ramagupta, an ineffectual ruler, who was soon deposed and assassinated by his brother, Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II (r. 380–415 CE) expanded the empire still further, to its greatest extent. He conquered much of Gujarat in western India. Like his grandfather, Chandragupta II also used marriage alliances to expand the empire, marrying into control of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, and adding the rich provinces of Punjab, Malwa, Rajputana, Saurashtra, and Gujarat. The city of Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh became a second capital for the Gupta Empire, which was based at Pataliputra in the north. Kumaragupta I succeeded his father in 415 and ruled for 40 years. His son, Skandagupta (r. 455–467 CE), is considered the last of the great Gupta rulers. During his reign, the Gupta Empire first faced incursions by the Huns, who would eventually bring down the empire. After him, lesser emperors, including Narasimha Gupta, Kumaragupta II, Buddhagupta, and Vishnugupta, ruled over the decline of the Gupta Empire. Although the late Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta managed to drive the Huns out of northern India in 528 CE, the effort and expense doomed the dynasty. The last recognized emperor of the Gupta Empire was Vishnugupta, who ruled from about 540 until the empire collapsed around 550 CE. Decline and Fall of the Gupta Empire As with the collapses of other classical political systems, the Gupta Empire crumbled under both internal and external pressures. Internally, the Gupta Dynasty grew weak from a number of succession disputes. As the emperors lost power, regional lords gained increasing autonomy. In a sprawling empire with weak leadership, it was easy for rebellions in Gujarat or Bengal to break out, and difficult for the Gupta emperors to put such uprisings down. By 500 CE, many regional princes were declaring their independence and refusing to pay taxes to the central Gupta state. These included the Maukhari Dynasty, who ruled over Uttar Pradesh and Magadha. By the later Gupta era, the government was having trouble collecting enough taxes to fund both its hugely complex bureaucracy and constant wars against foreign invaders like the Pushyamitras and the Huns. In part, this was due to the common peoples dislike of the meddlesome and unwieldy bureaucracy. Even those who felt a personal loyalty to the Gupta Emperor generally disliked his government and were happy to avoid paying for it if they could. Another factor, of course, was the near-constant rebellions among different provinces of the empire. Invasions In addition to internal disputes, the Gupta Empire faced constant threats of invasion from the north. The cost of fighting off these invasions drained the Gupta treasury, and the government had difficulty refilling the coffers. Among the most troublesome of the invaders were the White Huns (or Hunas), who conquered much of the northwestern section of Gupta territory by 500 CE. The Huns initial raids into India were led by a man who is called Toramana or Toraraya in Gupta records; these documents show that his troops began to pick off feudatory states from the Gupta domains around the year 500. In 510 CE, Toramana swooped down into central India and inflicted a decisive defeat at Eran on the Ganges river. The End of the Dynasty The records indicate that Toramanas reputation was strong enough that some princes voluntarily submitted to his rule. However, the records do not specify why the princes submitted: whether it was because he had a reputation as a great military strategist, was a blood-thirsty tyrant, was a better ruler than the Gupta alternatives, or something else. Eventually, this branch of the Huns adopted Hinduism and was assimilated into Indian society. Although none of the invading groups managed to completely overrun the Gupta Empire, the financial hardship of the battles helped hasten the end of the dynasty. Almost unbelievably, the Huns, or their direct ancestors the Xiongnu, had the same effect on two of the other great classical civilizations in earlier centuries: Han China, which collapsed in 221 CE and the Roman Empire, which fell in 476 CE. Sources Agrawal, Ashvini. Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1989. Chaurasia, Radhey Sham. History of Ancient India. Atlantic Publishers, 2002.Dwivedi, Gautam N. The Western Limits of the Gupta Empire. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 34, 1973, pp. 76-79.Goyal, Shankar. Historiography of the Imperial Guptas: Old and New. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 77.1/4, 1996, pp. 1–33.Mookerji, Radhakumud. The Gupta Empire. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1989.Prakash, Budha. Last Days of the Gupta Empire. Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 27.1/2, 1946, pp. 124-41. Vajpeyi, Raghavendra. A Critique of the Huna Invasion Theory. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 39, 1978, pp. 62-66.

Communications at Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Communications at Work - Essay Example Communication at work is one of the most important factors that determine how we perform our duties. Communication at work is takes the form of a dyad communication as we communicate with our managers vertically and we also communicate with our fellow workers horizontally. Effective communication is very important for efficient functioning of the dyad. However it has been shown that there are many factors that can affect the way we communicate with one another in the work place. Failure of communication at work can be a barrier to creating of an effective working environment as since it becomes difficult to understand each others. There are many barriers to effective communication in the workplace. This can result from environmental factors in the work place and at the same time it can be due to personal factors. However it has been shown that personal factors are the leading cause of barrier to communication in the work place as compared to environmental factors. Personal factors including the way we express ourselves during communication, attitudes and other factors have been shown to act as barriers to effective communication at the work place. This has adverse effects on the relationship in the dyad as we have described. Let us look at some of the personal factors that affect the communication process. Direct communication is one of the most commonly used means of communication at work... In this regard words are carefully chosen to communicate the message that we want to pass. However the way we choose words to pass our message has a lot of effect on other people. Certain words if used are likely to create a certain kind of expression to the person in the sense that they may emphasize or deemphasize the importance of the message that we are communicating at work. Attitudes Words are used careful when communicating to create and affect attitude. Word can be used to give a new attitude or alter the existing attitude about something or someone. However there has been a creative way in the use of the world in order to have such an effect. An attitude can be defined as a feeling towards someone or towards something. One may develop a positive or a negative attitude towards someone and this will affect the way they two people relate. It is usual that at first encounter, people usually have a neutral attitude towards something or towards someone. But as they interact with time, they tend to develop a positive or a negative attitude toward. This is usually affected by the judgment that people make from such an interaction. (Baby Center UK, 2008) As we communicate in the work place, we tend to form different kinds of attitudes. We may have a neutral attitude towards each other when we meet but as we interact we tend to change attitudes. In our communication process words play an important role as they alter the perception we had about someone or about something that we have related with in the work place. The way we choose our words to communicate with others also affects their attitude about us. In the dyad there are expectations that the supervisors or the managers may be expected to use authoritative

Analysis the case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis the case study - Essay Example â€Å"The second phase of the research was based on short personal interviews with members of the public, carried out in the streets of Central Manchester† (Peter W. Tumbull, Sheena Leek and Grace Ying, (2000), p.152)A mixture of open and closed-ended questions were used for this purpose. The above research philosophy succeeded in bringing out some statistics about the customers confusion over buying a mobile phone. The research was successful in establishing the earlier findings about the customer confusion once again. Because of the over dependence of secondary data, there may be some errors in the statistics. Most of the companies will never submit original data to the government agencies and The research succeeded in predicting a bright future growth to the mobile the mobile phone industry. It provided important statistics about the different age group preferences in purchasing mobile phones which will be useful for the manufacturers to change their designs to target specific segments in the consumer industry. Among the percentage of users, the result finds that users are still inclined to be younger age groups, with a peak among 25-34-year-olds. In addition, the findings also found that there are differences in the buying criteria and the usage amongst consumers (See Table 6.1). This infonnation could be used to produce specific market strategies for different types of consumers. The results further support the applicability of past research (Peter W. Tumbull, Sheena Leek and Grace Ying, (2000), p.161). The research failed to collect data about consumer’s confusion over the usage of mobile phones with respect to health related issues. The fear about the dangers caused by the mobile phone and tower radiations is growing among the public. At least a small percentage of the public is reluctant in using mobile phones due to their fear about the health issues. This research failed to address such people. The main objective of the research was to

Great Expectations - Chapter Summaries :: Great Expectations Essays

Great Expectations Notes Chapter 1 Setting: early in the 1800s; Churchyard in tiny village east of London  Joe Gargey and her husband in the Marshes.  His parents died Pip- Phillip Pirrap- main character- 7 years old- Lives w/ sister Mrs. when he was younger  One time while visiting his parents grave he meets a strange man- He asks Pip to get him a file and some writtles (food). Chapter 2 Setting: At home; We meet Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, and Mrs. Joe, Pip’s sister  Joe Gargery and Pip were both brought up by hand  At dinner Pip placed his bread for the convict down the leg of his trousers  The family receives news that Hulks(convicts) are on the loose  Later that night, Pip gets some bread, cheese, pork pie, mincemeat,  brandy, and the file (from the forge, this is where Joe works) Chapter 3 Setting: In the churchyard again; Pip delivers the stolen goods  Pip approached a man who was dressed in coarse grey, and had a great iron on his leg, but this was a different man  Pip saw the right convict hugging himself and limping. He had the chills and the fever  The convict asked Pip if he brought anyone and he said no, and the man believed him  The convict asked Pip where the man w/ the bruised face went. Pip pointed and handed him the file Chapter 4 Setting: At home; Christmas dinner we meet Mr. Pumblechook, Mr. Wopsle, and the Hubbles  Pip was fearful on his return that there would be a police officer waiting for him at home, but no one suspected the robbery  Pip made the excuse that he was listening to Christmas Carols  The guests: Mr. Wopsle- Church’s assistant to a parish priest- Mr. Hubble- one who makes wheels- Uncle Pumblechook- a grain merchant. He also had a chaise-cart  A file of soldiers w/ handcuffs. The wanted Joe to fix the handcuffs  They all go to the marshes in search for the convicts Chapter 5 Se tting: On the marshes; Pursuit  The search party could hear voices calling  They found the two convicts; There was water splashing and mud flying, and oaths were being sworn and blows being struck  They lit torches and marched separating the convicts  In order to take pip out of suspicion, this convict tells the sargent that he stole the food from Joe – The convict was taken on a boat and disappeared into the night Chapter 6 Setting: At home; Pip receives an odd job  Pip learns to write at Mr.

Deere And Company Case Essay

I. Introduction Deere & Company (also known as John Deere, after its founder) is a world-leading manufacturer, distributor, and financier of equipment for agriculture, construction, forestry, and commercial and consumer applications (lawn and grounds care). Deere’s objective has consistently been to be the low-cost producer in the markets it serves. However, it seeks to do so while maintaining an image of quality and customer focus. Its company values are quality, innovation, integrity, and commitment. Because of the company’s close ties to the agricultural industry, corporate performance in both sales and profits was highly, variable over the last several decades due to cycles of low prices and oversupplies of many agricultural products. During the period, the company made various adjustments in its product mix and manufacturing processes to enable it to better compete and survive in the global environment. II. Statement of the Problem During the company’s business cycle, Deere & Company faces the following problems: 1. How can the company achieve its goal, which is to gain $50 billion in mid-cycle sales by 2018 and 12% mid-cycle operating margins by 2014?; 2. How can the company increase their sales from one-third today to half of the company’s sales coming from outside the U.S. and Canada by 2018? III. Areas of Consideration The Deere & Company faces different problems such as how to gain $50 billion in mid-cycle sales by 2018 and 12% mid-cycle operating margins by 2014, and how to increase their sales from one-third today to half of the company’s sales coming from outside the U.S. and Canada by 2018. These problems are caused by the following: The company wants to double their sales, have a healthy increase in their profitability, and an almost three-fold increase in economic profit. The company have the eagerness to get all the opportunities outside their scope. The company wanted to widen their source of profit. IV. Alternative Courses of Action Alternative for problem #1 How can the company achieve its goal, which is to gain $50 billion in mid-cycle sales by 2018 and 12% mid-cycle operating margins by 2014?; Advantages Disadvantages The company must continue improving their services and equipments. The company will be able to maintain the loyalty of their current customers and at the same time get more loyal customers. They will need more skilled and qualified workers. It will increase the costs of their expenses. The company must hire more skilled and qualified workers. The company can have sufficient manpower to help in achieving their goal. It takes more time to search and it is also costly to train the future workers. Alternative for problem #2 How can the company increase their sales from one-third today to half of the company’s sales coming from outside the U.S. and Canada by 2018? The company should increase their exports and establish more branches outside the U.S and Canada. The company may be able to reach their expectation of their target sales from outside U.S. and Canada. The company may not be able to reach their expectation of their target sales because they might have strong competitors with the same business industry in a specific location. The company should improve their marketing strategies. The company will be able to effectively promote their products and encourage more investors and customers. The company will incur more expenses. V. Conclusion The researchers conclude that the company wants to gain $50 billion in mid-cycle sales by 2018 and 12% mid-cycle operating margins by 2014. So in order to achieve these, the company must continue improving their services and equipments to maintain the loyalty of their current customers and at the  same time get more loyal customers. But, they will need more skilled and qualified workers and it will increase the costs of their expenses. The company must also hire more skilled and qualified workers so that the company can have sufficient manpower to help in achieving their goal. However, it takes more time to search and it is also costly to train the future workers. The company also wants to increase their sales from one-third today to half of the company’s sales coming from outside the U.S. and Canada by 2018. I line with this, the company may be able to reach their expectation of their target sales from outside U.S. and Canada. But, the company may not also be able to reach their expectation of target sales because they might have strong competitors with the same business industry in those locations. The company should improve their marketing strategies for the company to be able to effectively promote their products and encourage more investors and customers. But, of course the company will incur more expenses too. VI. Recommendation The researchers are recommending the company to continue improving their services and equipments for themto gain $50 billion in mid-cycle sales by 2018 and 12% mid-cycle operating margins by 2014. The company will be able to maintain the loyalty of their current customers and at the same time get more loyal customers. By having loyal customers, they will also be the one who will encourage new customers by what we call â€Å"buzz marketing† because they are the ones who have experienced the high quality services and equipments rendered by the company. The researchers also suggest that the company should increase their exports and establish more branches outside the U.S and Canada to boost their sales from one-third today to half of the company’s sales coming from outside the U.S. and Canada by 2018.By doing this, the company may be able to reach their expectation of their target sales from outside U.S. and Canada because the company will have big chances of acquiring new customers and big profits by establishing more branches in different locations.